Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Example Essay Example

Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Example Paper Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Introduction Carolyn Godfrey English 101 Ms. Lazzo 10/26/2010 Theories of how Life on Earth began We certainly know that our universe exists, however, this knowledge alone has not satisfied mankind’s quest for further understanding. Our curiosity has led us to question our place in this universe and furthermore, the place of the universe itself. Throughout time we have asked ourselves questions such as: How did our universe began? How old is our universe? How did matter come to exist? Obviously, the search for clues has not ceased. Yet, after all this energy has been expanded, much of what we know is still only speculation. We have however, come a long way from the mystical beginnings of the study of cosmology and the origins of the universe. The theories I have heard about how life on earth began are interesting but the one that makes the most sense to me is Creationism. There are numerous theories that mankind has come to believe how life began on earth. One theory is The Big Bang theory . The Big Bang is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Body Paragraphs Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment. According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as â€Å"singularity† around 13. 7 billion years ago. What is a â€Å"singularity† and where does it come from? Well, to be honest, we don’t know for sure. Singularities are zones which defy our current understanding of physics. They are thought to exist at the core of â€Å"black holes. † Black holes are areas of intense gravitational pressure. The pressure is thought to be so intense that finite matter is actually squished into infinite density (a mathematical concept which truly boggles the mind). These zones of infinite density are called â€Å"singularities. † Our universe is thought to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something – a singular ity. Where did it come from? We don’t know. Why did it appear? We don’t know. What are the major evidences which support The Big Bang theory? First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning. Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This is called â€Å"Hubble’s Law,† named after Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted. Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as The Big Bang suggests, we should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2. 725 degree Kelvin (-454. 765 degree Fahrenheit, -270. 25 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias a nd Wilson shared in the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery. Finally, the abundance of the â€Å"light elements† Hydrogen and Helium found in the observable universe are thought to support The Big Bang model of origin (Kupperbang 33). Any discussion of The Big Bang theory would be incomplete without asking the question, what about God? This is because cosmogony (the study of the origin of the universe) is an area where science and theology meet. Creation was a supernatural event. That is, it took place outside of the natural realm. Another popular theory is â€Å"Evolution. † Darwin’s theory of Evolution is his widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: birds and bananas, the fishes and the flowers. –all related. Darwin’s general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) â€Å"descent w ith modification. † That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism’s genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival–a process known as â€Å"Natural Selection. † These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Overtime, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism, not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature. Darwin’s theory of evolution became a theory in crisis when advances were made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years. We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote. â€Å"Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small weighing less than 10 grams, each is in effect a veritable microminiaturized factory contains thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up together of one hundred thousand million atoms far more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world. We do not need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin’s day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, â€Å"To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances for admitting different amounts of light, and for correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree. This brings us to another theory, Intelligent Design. What is Intelligent? Intelligent design refers to a scientific researc h program as well as a community of scientists, philosophers and other scholars who seek evidence of design in nature. The theory of intelligent design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection. Through the study and analysis of a system’s components, a design theorist is able to determine whether various natural structures are the product of chance natural law, intelligent design, or some combination thereof. Such research is conducted by observing the types of information produced when intelligent agents act. Scientists then seek to find objects which have those same types of informational properties which are commonly known to come from intelligence. Intelligent design has applied these scientific methods to detect design in irreducibly complex biological structures, the complex and specified information content in DNA, the life-sustaining physical archite cture of the universe, and the geologically rapid origin of biological diversity in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion approximately 530 million years ago The theory of Intelligent Design is simply an effort to empirically detect whether the â€Å"apparent design† in nature acknowledged by virtually all biologists is genuine design (the product of an intelligent cause) or is simply the product of an ndirected process such as natural selection acting on random variations. Intelligent Design vs. Creationism typically starts with a religious text and tries to see how the findings of science can be reconciled to it. Intelligent design starts with the empirical evidence of nature and seeks to ascertain what inferences can be drawn from that evidence. Unlike creationism, the scientific theory of intelligent design does not claim that modern biology can identify whether the intelligent cause detected through science is supernatural. Honest critics of intelligent design acknowledge the difference between intelligent design and creationism. University of Wisconsin historian of science Ronald Numbers is critical of intelligent design, yet according to the Associated Press, he â€Å"agrees the creationist label is inaccurate when it comes to the ID [intelligent design] movement. † Why, then, do some Darwinists keep trying to conflate intelligent design with creationism? According to Dr. Numbers, it is because they think such claims are â€Å"the easiest way to discredit intelligent design. In other words, the charge that intelligent design is â€Å"creationism† is a rhetorical strategy on the part of Darwinists who wish to delegitimize design theory without actually addressing the merits of its case. Is intelligent design a scientific theory? Yes. The scientific method is commonly described as a four-step process involving observations, hypothesis, experiments, and conclusion. Intelligent design begins with the observation that intellig ent agents produce complex and specified information (CSI). Design theorists hypothesize that if a natural object was designed, it will contain high levels of CSI. Scientists then perform experimental tests upon natural objects to determine if they contain complex and specified information. One easily testable form of CSI is irreducible complexity, which can be discovered by experimentally reverse-engineering biological structures to see if they require all of their parts to function. When ID researchers find irreducible complexity in biology, they conclude that such structures were designed â€Å"Is there really a Creator? â€Å"Did we come from monkeys, or fish, or a tadpole, or were our ancestors actually humans all along? † â€Å"How old is the earth? † â€Å"Did it come about from an explosion, or was intelligent design involved? † As modern day scientists continually dream up new ways of explaining away evidences of Creation, more skepticism arises over t he true origin of life as we know it. Fortunately, the book of G enesis holds the answers to every Creationism question imaginable, and it’s there for the taking for anyone who is willing to listen and read. From world origins to world religions, one needs to search no farther than Genesis for answers to life’s toughest questions. Theories surrounding our origin have floated around for centuries; some have died out, some have morphed into new theories, and some have come to stay. But whatever the theory, if it’s not Biblical in my opinion, it’s not true. This is one fact most individuals find hard to accept. Even when the science is presented, ears are deafened and hearts are blinded to reality. But the truth of the matter is that each theory based upon an origin of chance can be easily debunked when aligned with Genesis concepts. Perhaps the most monumental is the creation of the universe as a whole. Work Cited Evolution. 2001. lt;http://pbs. org/wgbh/ev olution/index. htmlgt;. Kupperbang, Paul. Hubble and the Big Bang. New York: NY, 2005. Print. Petto, Andrew, and Laurie Godfrey. Scientists Confront Intelligent Design and Creationism:. Berkeley: CA, 2007. Print. The Big Bang Theory. n. d. 26 October 2010 lt;http://big-bang-theory. comgt;. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of How Life Began on Earth Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

The Administrative Assistant Every Boss Wants

The Administrative Assistant Every Boss Wants CareerStep offers some must-see strategies for becoming the admin assistant that your boss dreams about having. Just follow these simple rules for success and consider it done!Great administrative assistants know that the key to success on the job lies in putting together a solid work plan- one that shows that every detail, appointment, meeting, and task has been carefully considered, organized, and managed. It should also be flexible enough to deal with all those unexpected changes that can, and will, arise when least expected. Consider this your blueprint for success!You’ll also need a core set of soft skills that will empower you to capably crush any â€Å"to do† list and turn any anxiety-filled â€Å"What do I do?† to a confident â€Å"What’s next?†. Any great admin worth his or her desk pencils understands the need to be a patient, positive, and goal-focused force of nature no matter how upset, frustrated, or irrational the boss is behaving. A solid plan, open communication, and a good attitude will help you prevail in most situations. Besides, what boss wouldn’t swoon in the face of a calm, cool, and collected assistant who helps to safely pilot their plane during heavy turbulence?Here’s the best part: These essential survival skills for becoming the perfect admin assistant won’t just bring you success and accolades at work. They’ll help you nail every aspect of your life- from getting all of your important errands done to setting and achieving goals for the future and everything in between. It’s true- thinking and behaving like an administrative assistant will help you improve your entire life!Office Survival Skills for Administrative AssistantsRead More at www.careerstep.com

Making Phone Calls in German-Speaking Countries

Making Phone Calls in German-Speaking Countries Gone are the days when most European countries had one state monopoly phone company run by the post office- the former PTT: Post, Telefon, Telegraf. Things have changed! Although the former German monopoly Deutsche Telekom is still dominant, German homes and businesses can now select from a variety of phone companies. On the street you see people walking around with their Handys (cell/mobile phones). This article deals with several aspects of using a telephone in German: (1) practical Telefon how-tos, (2) vocabulary related to the equipment and telecommunications in general, and (3) expressions and vocabulary concerning good phone etiquette and making yourself understood on the phone, along with our annotated English-German Telephone Glossary. Talking on the phone is an important skill for English-speakers in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, or anyone who needs to make a long-distance call (ein Ferngesprch) to a German-speaking country. But just because you know how to use a telephone at home doesnt necessarily mean youre ready to cope with a public phone in Germany. An American business person who is quite capable of handling any business situation can quickly be at a loss in an unfamilar German telephone booth/box (die Telefonzelle). But, you say, anyone I want to call probably has a cell phone anyway. Well, you better have the right Handy or youre out of luck. Most U.S. wireless phones are useless in Europe or just about anywhere outside of North America. Youll need a multi-band GSM-compatible phone. (If you dont know what GSM or multi-band means, see our GSM phone page for more about using ein Handy in Europe.) A German or Austrian public phone can be confusing if youve never seen one before.  Just to complicate matters more, some public phones are coin-only, while others are phone card-only. (European phone cards are so-called smart cards that keep track of a cards remaining value as its used.) On top of that, some phones at German airports are credit card phones that take Visa or Mastercard. And, of course, a German phone card wont work in an Austrian card phone or vice versa. Just knowing how to say Hello! on the phone is an important social and business skill. In Germany you usually answer the phone by saying your last name. German phone subscribers must pay per-minute charges for all calls, including even local calls (das Ortsgesprch). This explains why Germans dont spend as much time on the phone as most Americans. Students staying with a host family need to know that even when they call a friend in the same town or across the street, they shouldnt talk for long stretches like they may at home. Using the telephone in a foreign country is an excellent example of how language and culture go together. If you dont know the vocabulary involved, thats a problem. But if you are unfamiliar with how the phone system works, thats also a problem- even if you know the vocabulary.

Warehousing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Warehousing - Essay Example Contemporary warehouse functions are much different that what they used to be. Previous warehousing systems were simply a place to store product until it was needed and in all honesty used a great deal more space than was necessary to allow for easier tracking of products. Many products were shipped in stored in a manual ledger and cross referenced when it was in demand. New technologies have had the ability to significantly reduce the strain on modern warehouse requirements. Ultimately by incorporating one new technology such as a barcode scanner or radio-frequency identification as a stand alone technology would not necessarily have a large impact, but by incorporating many new technologies in conjunction could significantly increase the efficiency of a DS. A very sophisticated contemporary warehousing facility would have products bar-coded upon delivery trucked to a pre set area with a conveyor belt or forklift, and wrought back to the shipping region when it is needed. In an idea l situation a contemporary DS would be able to be cross docked (Offloaded from one truck or the manufacturing line, directly into another thus alleviating the need for warehousing altogether). Ultimately one of the main goals of warehousing is the turning around of product as seamlessly as possible and the incorporation of new technologies helps aide this process. In a contemporary DS scenario technology would help aide workers in directing as much of their energy as possible to turning product around dedicate as much of their time as possible to moving prouduct out the door whereas out dated WMS would have workers dedicating much of their time to filling out reports, tracking products manually, moving inventory manually etc which can be a cumbersome process. The relevance and importance of Value Added Services (VAS) as well as cross docking systems and

Art History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Art History - Essay Example Long time ago, pottery vessels would be used mainly for four functions. These functions include; eating, drinking, cooking and storage purposes. With respect to the artwork under analysis, the Red Figure Column Krater is one form of pottery that has an outstanding history rooted in the culture and lifestyles of the Greeks (Museum of Fine Arts). The Column Krater is made out of ceramic clay, and was mainly used by the Greeks to mix and drink wine. The Column Krater was valued as a special vessel, thus it was used majorly in households to serve wine to esteemed guests. The vessel is estimated to have come into existence around 470BC (Museum of Fine Arts). This paper will contextualize the Red Figure Column Krater within the parent culture. The red figure column krater originated for Greece. It should be understood that Greeks started engaging in pottery as early as the 7th Millennium BC (Museum of Fine Arts). Original use of pots specifically happened at the eastern peninsula of the Me diterranean Sea, in the Neolithic era. There have been various pieces of evidence which suggest that Greek culture might have been the starting point of all form of pottery. Pots made in the era range from the clay-made vessels to bronze-aluminum vessels. Most signatures of the artists behind ancient Greek artistic works have been found either on the vessels themselves are where they were found. Currently, signatures can be seen in ancient pots kept in most of the archives and museums in the world. Art History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words Art History - Essay Example The video considers a variety of early 20th century artists that implemented African art techniques, and argues that it was these early Western artists that in great part shaped the way later Western artists would use and implement African sculpture. The video goes on to demonstrate through side-by-side comparisons ways that Western artists appropriated African sculpture within their own work. It argues that in this appropriation Western artists oftentimes misinterpreted the African art. One such example comes in terms of a sculpture of an African face, and its appropriation in a Western painting. One of the weaknesses of the video is that it takes a somewhat pedantic view of influence in criticizing Western appropriation of these African sculptures. For instance, the video never gives an in-depth explanation of how the artists misread the African art. It also neglects to note that it may not have been the intention of the Western artists to accurately interpret the African art, but instead to implement its structural or artistic dimensions as a means of influence. Perhaps some of the most engaging elements are the video are the biographical footage it contains into the lives and apartments of early 20th century artists. These photos provide the viewer with direct insight into the lives and habitats of these Western artists.

Domestic or Foreign Policy Issue Essay Example for Free

Domestic or Foreign Policy Issue Essay The political system of the United States has it that the three branches of government are independent and co-equal. In all policy issues, both domestic and foreign, the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary function separately but in support of the other two. In the War on Terror of the United States of America the three branches of government have each a separate role to do. The Constitution assigns to the President as Chief Executive, the chief command of the armed forces, matters related to foreign relations and the administration of the laws of the land. He is granted broad powers, such as in the Detainee Treatment Act, when the nation’s security is threatened and is at risk and as Vice President Dick Cheney said, â€Å"the Bush administration’s effort to keep the nation safe†. The justification is to â€Å"maximize the exercise of power to protect the nation,† because in the War on Terror, the president is vested with the â€Å"authority to establish rules related to both the detention and trial of alleged enemy combatants† (Corn, 2008). Congress is the law maker of the nation. Joint Resolution 23 or the War Powers Resolution of both Houses of Congress, gave the President â€Å"specified procedures †¦ regarding military action of the United States †¦ [which is the] responsible policy making that the Constitution assigns to the Congress† (Frye, 2002). The Courts are the final arbiters on questions of law, put simply the Judiciary interprets the Laws. In the War on Terror, the Supreme Court overruled both Congress and the President when it â€Å"struck down a provision of the Detainee Treatment Act that limited the access to judicial review by detainees in Guantanamo seeking to challenge their classification as enemy combatants† and in another instance when it â€Å"struck down assertions of plenary presidential authority to establish rules related to both the detention and trial of alleged enemy combatants† (Corn, 2008). In the War on Terror the three co-equal branches of government are carrying out their constitutional mandates, in their own independent forms to keep the country safe. References Corn, Geoffrey S. (2008, June 18). Boumediene v. Bush and the Role of the Courts in the War on Terror. Retrieved January 22, 2009 from http://www. worldpoliticsreview. com/article. aspx? id=2310 Frye, Alton. (2002, April 17). Applying the War Powers Resolution to the War on Terrorism. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved January 22, 2009 from http://www. cfr. org/publication/4514/ Swarns, Rachel L. (2008, December 21). Cheney Defends Bush on President’s Role. The New York Times. Retrieved January 22, 2009 from http://www. nytimes. com/2008/12/22/us/politics/22veeps. html? Mount, Steven. (2009, January 20). Constitutional Topic: The Government. US Constitution Online. Retrieved January 22, 2009 from http://www. usconstitution. net/consttop_govt. html

Attila The Hun: One Of Historys Great Leaders Essay -- essays researc

Barbarian is defined as, "a rude, coarse or brutal person"(Funk & Wagnalls 50). When one hears the name, Attila the Hun, one tends to think of him in such a negative way. Contrary to this popular belief, Attila the Hun was not a barbarian, but one of history's great leaders. The Hun kingdom was in modern-day Hungry. The Huns were a Turkish-speaking nomadic people. Attila and his brother Belda succeeded their uncle as leaders of the Huns in 434 A.D. Attila was in the junior role, until his brother's death 12 years later. It is often said that Attila murdered Belda to obtain the throne. When Attila became leader he found a rusty old sword; he said it was the sword of Mars. The empire which he inherited was dependent on tribute, without it, the Huns could not survive. Attila brought about a turn of events for his people. To ensure the survival of his people, in 447 AD, Attila launched an invasion of Eastern Europe. Attila created an empire that reached from the Black Sea to Germany. He was known in the west as ‘The Scourge of God'. . Compared to the leaders who had ruled before him, he was aggressive, ambitious, shrewd, intelligent, charismatic, and arrogant. Attila showed his great leadership by his army of magnificent proportions. It is thought to have been the largest army of the late fifth century. Attila also showed his leadership abilities by his motivational speaking. Attila was able to speak to his soldiers before battle, inspiring them to fight even harder. Finally, Attila revealed himself as a great leader in his ability to be a military strategist. The battle of Chalons, in which Attila fought, was one of the most decisive battles in history. One of the most important factors in Attila being a great leader was his army. Attila had an army of amazing proportions for the fifth century. Attila was able to make his army so large by taking the men from conquered cities and forcing them into his army. His army grew so large it invoked fear throughout the people of Europe. Ancient accounts from the time say that the number of men in Attila's army, " range between 300,000 and 700,000 for the army of the Huns. Whatever the size, it was clearly enormous for the fifth century AD" (I'm a Barbarian). Other accounts say that the size of Attila's army at the battle of Chalons was actually half a million men in... ...p; "Attila The Hun." COSMIC BASEBALL ASSOCIATION-1997 ATTILA THE HUN. 23 Oct. 1999. http://www.clark.net/pub/cosmic/attila7.html "Attila The Hun (aka The Scourge of God) (406-453)." Malaspina.com. 23 Oct. 1999. http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/attila.htm "Attila the Hun." How Not To Die: The Dumbest Deaths in Recorded History. 23 Oct. 1999 http://www.alink.net/~tomki/Funnies/death2.txt "Barbarian." Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary. 1984. Ferrill, Arther. "Attila the Hun and The Battle of Chalons". Medieval Sourcebook. 1999 http://www.msstate.edu/Archives/History/scholarship/attila.art (23 Oct. 1999). Furnival, Mark. "The Huns." The Huns. 1998. http://www.btinternet.com/%7Emark.furnival/huns.htm (23 Oct. 1999). "Medieval Sourcebook: Pricus on Attila the Hun 448." Medieval Sourcebook. 1999 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/attila1.html "The Huns." I'm A Barbarian. 23 Oct. 1999. http://art1.candor.com/barbarian/attila.htm Attila The Hun: One Of Historys Great Leaders Essay -- essays researc Barbarian is defined as, "a rude, coarse or brutal person"(Funk & Wagnalls 50). When one hears the name, Attila the Hun, one tends to think of him in such a negative way. Contrary to this popular belief, Attila the Hun was not a barbarian, but one of history's great leaders. The Hun kingdom was in modern-day Hungry. The Huns were a Turkish-speaking nomadic people. Attila and his brother Belda succeeded their uncle as leaders of the Huns in 434 A.D. Attila was in the junior role, until his brother's death 12 years later. It is often said that Attila murdered Belda to obtain the throne. When Attila became leader he found a rusty old sword; he said it was the sword of Mars. The empire which he inherited was dependent on tribute, without it, the Huns could not survive. Attila brought about a turn of events for his people. To ensure the survival of his people, in 447 AD, Attila launched an invasion of Eastern Europe. Attila created an empire that reached from the Black Sea to Germany. He was known in the west as ‘The Scourge of God'. . Compared to the leaders who had ruled before him, he was aggressive, ambitious, shrewd, intelligent, charismatic, and arrogant. Attila showed his great leadership by his army of magnificent proportions. It is thought to have been the largest army of the late fifth century. Attila also showed his leadership abilities by his motivational speaking. Attila was able to speak to his soldiers before battle, inspiring them to fight even harder. Finally, Attila revealed himself as a great leader in his ability to be a military strategist. The battle of Chalons, in which Attila fought, was one of the most decisive battles in history. One of the most important factors in Attila being a great leader was his army. Attila had an army of amazing proportions for the fifth century. Attila was able to make his army so large by taking the men from conquered cities and forcing them into his army. His army grew so large it invoked fear throughout the people of Europe. Ancient accounts from the time say that the number of men in Attila's army, " range between 300,000 and 700,000 for the army of the Huns. Whatever the size, it was clearly enormous for the fifth century AD" (I'm a Barbarian). Other accounts say that the size of Attila's army at the battle of Chalons was actually half a million men in... ...p; "Attila The Hun." COSMIC BASEBALL ASSOCIATION-1997 ATTILA THE HUN. 23 Oct. 1999. http://www.clark.net/pub/cosmic/attila7.html "Attila The Hun (aka The Scourge of God) (406-453)." Malaspina.com. 23 Oct. 1999. http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/attila.htm "Attila the Hun." How Not To Die: The Dumbest Deaths in Recorded History. 23 Oct. 1999 http://www.alink.net/~tomki/Funnies/death2.txt "Barbarian." Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary. 1984. Ferrill, Arther. "Attila the Hun and The Battle of Chalons". Medieval Sourcebook. 1999 http://www.msstate.edu/Archives/History/scholarship/attila.art (23 Oct. 1999). Furnival, Mark. "The Huns." The Huns. 1998. http://www.btinternet.com/%7Emark.furnival/huns.htm (23 Oct. 1999). "Medieval Sourcebook: Pricus on Attila the Hun 448." Medieval Sourcebook. 1999 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/attila1.html "The Huns." I'm A Barbarian. 23 Oct. 1999. http://art1.candor.com/barbarian/attila.htm

African Americans and the Prison System Essay

I. The History of Oppression and African Americans? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K.. III. The lasting effects of slavery: continuous oppression? K? K? K? K? K? K? K a. The lost sense of culture and cultural pride: Feeling of inferiority b. No economic foundation c. Unleveled playing field IV. Maintaining oppression? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K. PART 2 : THE NEW AGE SLAVERY: The Prison System I. The Prison Institution? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K II. Race and the Prison System? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K.. III. The lasting oppression? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K.. IV. The effects of oppression? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K a. Demise of the Black family b. Lost political voice V. Solutions? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K. VI. Closing? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K? K I. Introduction In the book the Mugging of Black America, Earl Ofari Hutchinson relays an interesting experience by a reporter. The reporter, who spent two and a half hours watching suspects march before Washington, D. C. Superior Court Judge Morton Berg, noted that all but one of these subjects was Black. He stated, ?  §There is an odd air about the swift afternoon? Xan atmosphere like that of British Africa in colonial times? Xas the procession of tattered, troubled, scowling, poor blacks plead guilty or not guilty to charges of drug possession, drug distribution, assault, armed robbery, theft, breaking in, fraud and arson. According to Hutchinson, the reporter witnessed more than a courtroom scene; he witnessed the legacy of slavery. This paper will attempt expand on Hutchinson?  ¦s theory. It will do so by first describing slavery and its lasting impact then it will attempt to show how the current criminal justice system mirrors slavery. PART 1: Slavery I. The History of Oppression and African Americans The history of the oppression as it relates to African Americans began in 1619. It was this year in which a Dutch ship brought the first slaves from Africa to North America. Following this arrival of twenty Africans in Virginia, white European-Americans created the institution of slavery. Slavery spread so quickly that by 1860 the original twenty slaves turned into nearly four million. In the beginning the legal status of these Africans was undefined. This absent definition created a lack of certainty which allowed for some slaves to become free after years of service. This only lasted briefly. In the 1660s, however, the colonies began enacting laws that defined and regulated slaves and the institution of slavery. One of the most important of these was the provision that black slaves, and the children of slave women, would serve for life. These ?  §breeding laws were just the beginning. Soon, slavery in the United States was governed by a body of laws developed from the 1660s to the 1860s. Even though every slave state had its own slave code and case law, it became universal that slavery was a permanent condition. In addition to slavery being a permanent condition, slaves were also, under these laws, considered property. Slaves, being property, could not own property or be a party to a contract. Since marriage is a form of a contract, slave marriages had no legal standing. Most codes also had sections regulating free blacks. Under these codes blacks who were not slaves were still subject to controls on their movements and employment. These laws served not only as a physical limitation, but an ideological one also. In addition to granting slave owners and white people power over slaves and in some cases free blacks, the laws also granted slaveholders and white-Europeans an intangible source of power. Socially, the institution of slavery allowed white slave owners to believe they had not only physical control, but physical and mental superiority over the slaves. With only a few exceptions, all slaves were Africans. This fact placed the label of inferiority on black skin. The actual institution of slavery as it relates to master and slave lasted up in till the Civil war. The American Civil War was fought, in part, over slavery. During the war, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which ?  §freed all slaves. This seemingly, brought the end of slavery throughout the United States, but unfortunately left a lasting impression. From this point on slavery took on a new form as former slaves being associated with the label of inferiority. II. The lasting effects of slavery: continuous oppression Slavery is defined by Webster?  ¦s dictionary as ?  §The state of being under the control of another person . Aalthough the actual physical control and violence supposedly ended after the emancipation proclamation, The intangible theory of supremacy derived from the institution of slavery resulted in many lasting effects. These effects in and of themselves are a form of force, a form slavery. a. The lost sense of culture and cultural pride: Feeling of inferiority Slave drivers made great efforts to eliminate African culture. For instance Africans were beaten if they were caught speaking their native languages or carrying out native rituals . Therefore, they were not able to effectively pass the languages, stories and traditions on to their children. This forced suppression resulted in the loss of verbal records and a rich legacy of history. It is no secret that there is pride in culture. Taking away the culture takes away the pride and the motivation and results in feelings of worthlessness. b. no economic foundation Slave drivers not only attempted to deprive the Africans of there culture and pride, but they successfully robbed them economically. Slaves were forced to work without pay for years while padding the pockets of the slave owners. This deficit of economics resulted in an inability to establish an economic foundation in the United States. c. Unleveled playing field Along with the deprivation of financial resources, another significant factor concerning the state of African Americans is arrested development. Slaves were deprived of opportunities to learn and become more competitive in many areas of society. Black people were not allowed to read or learn to read, so they could not take advantage of written text. All these lasting effects placed blacks in a severely disadvantaged state when slavery was â€Å"abolished†, led a socioeconomic structure in which white people generally held the highest ranks and Black people generally held the lowest ranks. III. Maintaining oppression In order to maintain this socioeconomic structure, there always seems to be a new form of oppression set in place to maintain ?  §slavery. As if the above detrimental effects of slavery were not enough, the White southerners were anxious to maintain more direct power and control over people with black skin, despite there classification as ?  §free. The White southerners decided to, again, use the law in order crystallize there theory of inferiority and keep black people at the lowest ranks. In 1865, southerners created Black Codes, which served as a way to control and inhibit the freedom of ex-slaves. These historic Codes controlled almost all aspects of life, and prohibited African Americans from almost all the freedoms that had been won during the Civil War. The codes, which were blatantly racist and oppressive, were eventually suspended in June 1866, during the ? §reconstruction era. During this time period in America and despite resistance, African-Americans were slowly becoming part of this nation’s inclusion. By 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution confirmed the long awaited citizenship for Blacks in America. By 1870, the 15th Amendment was added to the Constitution which made it illegal to deny the right to vote based on race. The Reconstruction era, although short-lived, showed the first real attempts of inclusive freedom for African-Americans since the abolition of slavery. Gains were taking place: Citizenship, Voting, Education, and Politics. But, the underlying desire to have power over those in black skin never subsided. Just like the black Codes, this desire to dominate again manifested itself in another form, Jim Crow Laws. These laws promoted discrimination and the denial of equal protection by law. Just like the codes, they too were eventually abolished. Just like the Codes, Jim Crow laws, the desire of our society to suppress those in black skin will soon take another form. Today that form is the Criminal Justice System. PART 2 The New Age Slavery: The Prison System I. The Prison Institution Prisons are big in the United States. During the past 20 years, the United States experienced a massive increase in incarceration. The prison population increased fourfold, from 330,000 in 1980 to nearly 1. 4 million in 1999, and the incarceration rate increased from about 140 to about 476 per 100,000 resident populations. Today there are more than two million Americans behind bars. But even more startling is the fact that more than one-half of these incarcerated Americans have black skin. Although black Americans only make up about 12% of the US population, they account for more then 30% of all arrests, 44% of all prisoners and 40% of prisoners on death row. II. Race and the Prison System These obvious disparities in the criminal justice system can be attributed to many different things ranging from racial profiling to the lack of opportunity and poor education, but most criminal justice observers believe that these disparities have emerged from the underlying assumptions rooted in slavery. The assumption that slaves were inferior has carried over to today. Currently this theory of inferiority and desire to maintain oppression influences one of the major policies in place attacking African Americans today, the ?  §war on drugs. Most of the shocking disparities in the criminal Justice System as it relates to African Americans in prison can be attributed to the ?  §war on drugs. According to a study by Human Rights Watch, African-Americans comprise 62 percent of the drug offenders admitted to state prisons. In seven states, â€Å"blacks constitute between 80 and 90 percent of all people sent to prison on drug charges. † According to studies of the U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, African-Americans constitute 15 percent of the national drug users, but comprise an amazing one-third of all those arrested on drug charges and 57 percent of those convicted on drug charges. The criminal justice system generally, and contemporary crime and drug policies in particular, serve as a means for White America to control the African Americans like they did in the 1600 . III. The lasting oppression Similarly to the black codes and segregation implemented after the abolition of slavery; restrictions are placed on prisoners after they are released. Once a prisoner is released from prison, parole and the bans on public assistance, public housing restrictions, etc. create barriers and a seemingly doomed cycle of dominance. Since half of the prisoners in prison are African American, these barriers, like the lasting effects of slavery, have a disproportionate effect on our black communities. III. The effects of oppression According to the Department of Justice?  ¦s Bureau of Justice statistics, the number of adults in prison, jail, or on probation or parole reached almost 7 million during 2004. Since Blacks comprise 30 percent of probationers and 41 percent of prisoners. That means around 4,500,000 African Americans are affected directly by the criminal justice system. Unfortunately those African Americans sent to prison or under parole are not the only people affected. The impact on the black community does not stop at the prison door, conversely it goes far beyond. Even after a prisoner is released there are lasting effects to the prisoner, his or her family and the community as a whole. a. Demise of the Black family One effect of the high rate of incarceration of African American males in particular has been the decreasing number of marriageable men in the African American community. Along with high rates of homicide, AIDS-related deaths and other factors, this has created a substantial imbalance in the male-female ratio among adult African Americans. Whereas gender ratios for African Americans at birth are about 102-103 males for every 100 females, by the age range 40-44, this declines to 86 males per 100 females, whereas white rates are 100:100 for this group. b. Lost political voice The impact of the criminal justice system on the black community goes beyond the declining family structure to issues of political influence as well. As a result of laws that disenfranchise felons and ex-felons in various states, an estimated 1. 4 million African American males, or 13% of the black male adult population, is either currently or permanently disenfranchised as a result of a felony conviction. In fourteen states, a felony conviction can result in lifetime disenfranchisement, and in seven of these states, an estimated one in four black males is permanently disenfranchised. Thus, not only are criminal justice policies contributing to the disproportionate incarceration of African Americans, but imprisonment itself then reduces the collective political ability of African Americans to influence these policies. V. Solutions The constant demise in the structure of the black family, lost political influence and seemingly arrested development are all very familiar results of a history of oppression. Since these effects of slavery and disparities in the criminal justice system seemingly steam from hundreds of years ago there is no â€Å"quick fix†. Ideally the answer would lie in the destruction of all prejudice. But, it is impossible to erase the deep seated legacy and resurfacing effects of slavery. Therefore this problem must be attacked from a variety of different angles. Recommendations for change can be considered in the areas of awareness, legislative change, criminal justice officials?  ¦ initiatives, and criminal justice/community partnerships. The following are some suggested that will allow for a beginning to a seemingly circular and endless problem. 1. Legislative Actions Legislation should be pushed to Reconsider Mandatory Sentencing Policies and Equalize Penalties for Crack and Powder Cocaine . 2. Criminal Justice Officials?  ¦ Initiatives ?n Criminal Justice Officials should Expand Drug Policy Options And Expand the Use of Alternative Sentencing 3. Criminal Justice/Community Partnerships. The criminal Justice system and the community should attempt to Increase Community-based Diversion from the Criminal Justice System And Strengthen the Link between Communities and the Justice System VI. Closing Oppression in the form of institutionalization is nothing new to those dressed in black skin; it has been present since 1619. In this year Africans were brought to the United States and forced into the institution of slavery. Even after the abolition of slavery, a series of codes and segregation laws were set in place to maintain the suppression of black people because black skin was stigmatized as inferior. Even though the prejudice and biased codes and laws were eventually abolished themselves, this stigma remains. Because this theory of black inferiority was embedded in the American culture due to slavery, various means of oppression are able to continually resurface in different forms. Today that form is Criminal Justice System, more specifically the drug policies. Practically mirroring the institution of slavery, African Americans are being controlled and dominated by this system. Control by the USCJS includes the probation, parole, imprisonment, lost economic power, struggling communities and lost political voice. In order to end this vicious cycle of oppression, action must be taken. First people must be made aware of the disparities. Next those who are made aware must press for legislative change, criminal justice officials?  ¦ initiatives, and criminal justice/community partnerships. The challenge for the community at large is to engage in broad discussion of the mix of family, community, and government initiatives that can begin to reverse the cycle that has been set in motion in recent years. Let?  ¦s do what Abraham attempted o do in 1877, let?  ¦s end this legacy of slavery.

How the bill of rights have been violated Essay

Summary Since September 11, 2001 the fear of terrorism has eroded the rights and liberties that define American society. There have been egregious violations of Constitutional rights and international law related to the government response to the attacks of one year ago. The Executive branch of the Constitution has taken control of the whole situation regarding the war on terror by using the Executive Orders and not compromising with the other two branches resulting in seriously compromised constitutional guarantees of both citizens and non-citizens. Example of Bill of rights The previous example pertained to the first, fourth, fifth and sixth amendment rights of the citizens and non citizens, mentioned in the Bill of Rights. Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Amendment IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Amendment V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime,  unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Amendment VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Rights – Enforced / Denied In this situation the previous rights have been denied. â€Å"From the USA Patriot Act’s overbroad definition of domestic terrorism, to the FBI’s new powers of search and surveillance, to the indefinite detention of both citizens and non-citizens without formal charges, the principles of free speech, due process, and equal protection under the law have been seriously undermined.† (from the article attached!)

Bio Lab essays

Bio Lab essays Every minute there are thousands of chemical reactions occurring in cells that are controlled by enzymes. (Vodopich) Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions. As catalysts, enzymes lower the amount of energy needed to trigger a reaction. Enzymes are proteins with their own shapes determined by amino acid structures. The active site complexes on these structures determine what specific changes a substrate (reactant molecule in a catalyzed enzyme) will go through becoming a different substance with a different shape. (Weiss 2001) During this experiment the enzyme catalase was used to reduce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water and oxygen. After adding aliqouts of reaction mixture we removed small amounts of sample at different time intervals we analyzed the molar concentration of H2O2 and the velocity of molar change per minute. Assaying denatured enzyme samples at different time intervals of 0, 0.5,1,1.5,and 2 minutes to review spectrophotometer readings of the c orresponding samples of H2O2. Our absorbency readings at 500 decreased from .921 at 0 minutes to 0.086 at 2.0 minutes. The concentration of H2O2 also decreased according to time, from .28 moles at 0 minutes to 0.026 moles at 2 minutes. Between 1 and 1.5 minutes the velocity of molarity change per minute peaked at a velocity of .16 and decreased to be .108 at 2 minutes. Confirming that with an adequate amount of subsrates, enzyme reactions increase. Accordingly depleted substrate reactions decrease with time. Graphically enzymes with an abundant substrate concentration rate appear linear with time. (Weiss 2001) Enzymes are catalysts, accelerate reaction rates, in Biological sequencesthat when left alone can speed up reactions 14-20 times while in ideal conditions such as 37 degrees celsius and neutral pH. Also enzymes are protiens which are made of specific amino acid sequences. The shape of an enzyme is determined by its amino acid sequence which controlt...

Austrian and Post-Keynesian theories of the competitive process

Austrian and Post-Keynesian theories of the competitive process The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that emphasizes the spontaneous organizing power of the price mechanism, which was influential in the late 19th and early 20th century (Boettke, 2008). After the 1870s, Marxism spread rapidly in the ranks of workers, and the economic theories that defended for the capitalists went bankrupt. The Austrian economics based on three core concepts: entrepreneurship, subjectivism and market process, which became popular after that. The Post-Keynesian school of thought was developed in the debate with the neoclassical synthesis. After The General Theory of Keynes was published, some different points of view on the practical problems arose in the followers of Keynes, and gradually formed two opposing schools of thought: neoclassical and the Post Keynesian School. The theoretical foundation of Post Keynesian economics is the principle of effective demand, that demand matters in the long as well as the short run, so that a competiti ve market economy has no natural or automatic tendency towards full employment (Arestis, 1996). The objective of this paper is comparing and contrasting Austrian and Post-Keynesian theories of the competitive process. The similarities and differences between these two theories will be stated orderly. Although Austrian and Post-Keynesian theories are two different schools of thought, they still have some degree of similarities. First, they both advocate uncertainty. Next, they both cannot be regarded as profit maximizers. Last, the competitive process is seen as a dynamic process by both theories. First of all, for the Austrian approach uncertainty is pervasive. One of the Austrian’s core concepts is entrepreneurship. Austrian school thinks that the community is a collection of individuals. Individual’s economic activity is a microcosm of the national economy. Through the interpretation of individual economic activities, reasoning illustrates the complexities of real ec onomic phenomena. Entrepreneur is the individual here in the real economy. They are all different in each other. Therefore entrepreneurs in particular always face fundamental uncertainty. Kirzner (1973) emphasized the uncertainty present in all human decision-making, has primarily focused on the entrepreneurial market process. For the Post-Keynesian approach firms’ pricing behaviour is determined by a ‘mark-up’ rule. This behavioural approach to pricing is partly in response to the imprecision of price setting in conditions of uncertainty. Uncertainty is the fundamental element of Keynes’ theory, and Post-Keynesian followed and developed it. In the Post-Keynesian theory of agency, agents are non-optimisers due to fundamental uncertainty. According to Fernando Ferarri Filho (2001), in a context in which time is historical, economic agents do not decide future actions on the basis of statistical series analyses or beliefs justified by experience. To the cont rary, decision-making is classified as an environment of true uncertainty. They are not the rational calculators of standard theory. This suggests some overlap with Austrian theory. Second, in Austrian’s term, entrepreneurs display purposeful pursuit of profit in the competitive process, which provides market order. It cannot be regarded as profit maximizers due to fundamental uncertainty. However profit is still therefore important in motivating agents. Neoclassical theory assume that manufacturers pursuit profit maximization, but we all know there is another voice in society requiring manufacturers to take social responsibility. Social responsibility will increase the company’s operating costs, which is not conducive to their competition in the market. So, non-profit-maximizing firms will be sustained by the loss of profits and investment capacity and continuous losses, and finally be forced out of the market. Austrian school advocates idealism and they do not believ e that firms select the behaviour of pursuit profit maximization. In post-Keynesian economics, firms are not assumed to maximize profits as well, as is clear in Lavoie (1992, p.105), â€Å"The standard critique of the neoclassical theory of the firm is that profit maximization is not possible because of the lack of pertinent knowledge due to an uncertain environment. Profit maximization is then replaced by profit satisfying. Firms are assumed to set themselves threshold levels of profits; that is, minimum levels of profits or of rates of return.† Furthermore, the firm’s overall objective is the pursuit of ‘power’. This involves attempting to control its environment. To become powerful, firms must be big; to become big, firms must grow. Growth is the subjective and profits are the means to realize this objective. However, maximizing growth does not equal to maximizing profits. Firms maximize the rate of growth, subject to various finance and expansion const raints.

Classify three types of addiction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Classify three types of addiction - Essay Example It encompasses the development of dependence on any substance that chemically alters the body’s normal functioning. Drugs and substances addicts live for the next â€Å"high†; as such, they channel all their finances towards purchasing drugs neglecting their financial obligations. In addition, their social relationships suffer, as they rely on manipulation tactics to get money for their next hit. Sex addiction encompasses an individual’s dysfunctional preoccupation with sex, which in turn hinders them from fulfilling other obligations or executing their social roles. Sex addiction is also a common form of addiction; however, because of the culturally imposed stigma, many people suffering from sex addiction shy away from seeking help. Gambling addiction, although not as prevalent as the other two, affects a vast number of people. It encompasses an individual’s dependence on taking unnecessary risks financially with the hope of gaining extra financial incentives. Success in gambling depends entirely on luck, as there is no certain criterion for predicting the outcome. Gambling addicts are perpetually in